Umar and the early islamic conquests – 634 – 644
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• August 634 – Islam over Arabia started expansion, no complaints Umar as successor – considerable practical ability – directed Islamic conquests developed system of settlement and diwan system with arrangements for paying pensions to the conqueror rather than distributing lands – far reaching consequence for political future.  Most famous Iraq, Iran, Syria, Egypt
• Favurs Umayyad Meccans and Muhajirun – favoured people devoted to Islam – so Ansar penalised and formerly powerful men lose prestige and seek power within tribes etc.
• Muhammad made Syria impotant objective – continued with Abu Bakr and Umar – Bedouin of Syrian desert as much Arab tribesmen as Uman or Bahrayn
• Expeditions organised by Syria – not unexplained migration of vast numbers of ill-disciplined tribesmen – assembled with Hijaz prominent – tended to join in small groups and individuals – caliph decided who and when despatched to the front.  Not big 24,000 to Syria and less to Iraq – no evidence animals or family with them, although this did happen after expeditions success.  Organized military expeditions led by elite eager to enforce authority over Bedouin.
• Why?  All Arab tribesmen should be Muslims and settled Arabs of Damascus the same – maintenance of leadership and power – one Muslim should not attack the other – directing energies tribesmen against outside enemy could unity Muslim state be preserved  Powers of patronage for elite in medina and tribesmen saw joining up as way to earthly and heavenly paradise.
• Necessary consequence of unification of Arabia under Muhammad and Abu Bakr without external opportunity hold of Medina over Arab tribes disintegrated – “expand and survive” was motto
• No chronology or outline – mix of anecdotes and wildly conflicting sources.
• Conquest Syria 3 phases: AB 4 armies 3 east of the Jordan an on southern borders of Palestine – object to subdue tribes of Syrian borderlands rather than to conquer entire province – AB orders Khalid to join the forces in Syria.  Khalid defeated one and then went to help tribes against Persian garrison – AB saw Syria as more important and Khalid crossed desert in 634 to join armies against Syria.  Transfer of Khalid, however he marched, shows how firm control Kaliph over operations.
• 634 –7 post AB. Death Khalid replaced by Abu Ubayda.  Battles at Ajnadayn, Fihl Yarmuk river south of D. – sieges only D, Caesarea and Tripoli only centres to put up resistance – Yarmuk last decisive battle.  Power Byzantine army Syria broken and country laid open
• Composition army vital – Byzantine probably larger and as many Arabs as Muslim – Lakhm, Ghassan, Judham - Muslims mainly Qurashis, Yamani – few Ansar of medina or Nadji from Eastern Arabian – make up of conquering army profound effect on political life in the country.
• Fall D. 637 – no more Byzantine armies into the field – Abu Ubayda moved north to Homs sent out Khalid to reduce Qinnasrin, Antioch and Aleppo – no probs.  Amr’ finishes south Palestine – Emperor Heraclius abandoned Syria and laid waste to border lands of Cicilia retreated to Anatolia.  Some coastal cities put up resistance with Byzantine naval help.
• Fall Jerusalem 638 – Umar comes as patriarch only surrender to caliph.  Plague ravished Syria killed Muslim generals – Mu’awaya – supervised settlement of province.   Umar wanted separate Muslim town like Kufa and Basra in Iraq – but too many Arabic speakers – province split into Junds as armed settled in coastal and frontier areas to prevent Byzantine attack.  Dispersal of Muslims avoided problems of Iraq – Syria remained clam and organized throughout period of first 4 caliphs.
• North ad East of Syria lay Jazira – island between Tigris and Euphrates – Qurashi Iyad as leader – big Qurashi element Anar and Hijazi tribes – members to be influential in Armenia for centuries to come. – no battles or long sieges as occupants saw little hope of help from Byzantine empire.  Edessa fell and subordinates fanned plains capturing town – met Iraqi Muslim forces: Sinjar and Nisibin captured from the Jazira – 641 back in Homs –dies same year – succeeded by Umayr – 645-6 Uthamn incorporates province into Mu’awiya’s Syrian domains
• No large garrison twons like Kufa, Jabiya – series of treaties made, leaders of urban community guaranteed property rightd and freedom of worship – when Uthman entrusts land to Mu’awaiya – more tribesmen settled from north-east Arabia.  Areas named after tribes and continue Nomad existence – no swamping local culture like Syria or Iraq.  Paganism and Christianity continued to flourish in early Islamic period.  Northern frontier stabilized – garrison upper Euphrates 0 important base wars against Byzantines.
• Better accounts Egypt – Amr b. al-Als – Umar gives begrudging permission to go for Egypt only 4000 in number taken to Egypt – no Meccans accompany him.
• Persian invasions shake Byzantine hold on the country – been in control for ten years forced to withdraw in 627 to defend homeland.  631 Heraclius entrusts Cryrus, bishop of Phasis in Caucasus with patriarch Alexandria – persecuted Monophysites of Coptic church – alienated much population from Roman rule, more so than Syria where some Orthodox.
• No evidence that Copts invited Amr in, or than Amr knew of weakness and no active help from Copts – but offered imperial army no support or local levies – passive attitude of local people explain something of ease of the conquests.
• Enter Egypt 639 – attempot to destroy bulk Byzantine before trying at Alexandria – Amr joined by al-Zubayr but Amr retained command – defeat Byzantines at Heliopolis to north of Cairo – death Heraclius 641 – Alexandria should have defended itself with sea support, but couldn’t because of virtual civil war.  Surrendered 642 – not seriously threatened until crusades.
• Arabs choose site edge settled lands for easy communication with Arabia – Fustat – Arab settlement very l9mited, small garrison in Alexandria – no large-scale immigration followed conquest, admin of Byzantines taken over and streamlined – old methods and officials continued to be used.  Arabs small minority and spread of language and Islam slow – small part politics early state.
• Conquest of Iraq – less attractive to nomads because of irrigation channels etc – carried out by those who were already second class citizen in the new regime while elite turned their attention to Syria.
• Aran incursions into Iraq begun before arrival of Muslim army – dissolution of Lakhmid kingdom of Hira in 602 – nomads taking increasingly aggressive stance towards settled people – hastened by catastrophes  - Heraclius’ invasions death of Khursau II in 628 and civil wars. Khalid aided Haritha.
• Khalid called away and tribes carried on – 634 Umar sent a Thawafi – Abu Ubayd with 5000 ansar of Medina – defeated by Persians at the Battle of the Bridge.  Could not avenge for two years – so opponents from Ridda war into fray – Muslim credential in charge (Qurashi Waqqas) – much larger Persian army 12,000 much larger Persia army under Rustam – battle of Qadisiyya decisive – Persian host totally defeated and shortly afterwards Persian capital (Ctesiphon) occupied and occupied by victorious army 637  -victory at Jalula forced Yazdgird III to withdraw to Isfahan areas  - secures position of Muslims, small groups of whom now took control of town and villages of Iraq as far north as Mosul.
• Southern Iraq and province of Kuzistan taken by separate campaign – less major battles.
• 638 Muslim taken control almost all plains of Tigris and Euphrates.  King and court fled to Iranian plateau but peasants stayed on the land/  Umar creates garrison towns for Muslims – southern campaign at Basra central Iraq at Kufa – mosque and garrison in each town – soldiers into tribal groupings so easily controlled and watched.  Threat of Persian counter attack real and if spread out v. vulnerable to attack – so tight units together.  Desert nomadic life ungovernable as shown by Ridda wars – settlement always key, and not want contamination by local groups.
• Locals taxed as Muslims not allowed to farm – administration of Arab lands, taken from Sasanian monarchs and Zoroastrains, controversial for years.  Money distributed to settler form of ata  -diwan records salaries and rates of pay – scale depending on precedence to Islam.  Earliest into Basra 30000 silver dirhams per month – later emigrants only 200.  Social tension and anomalies – new privileged class more money than equal for joining Islam earlier – caused resentment amongst new arrivals
• Amirs – leaders of provinces, tended to be fairly independent of the government of Medina and responsive to needs of men that had ed them to victory.  Retained most revenues from provinces to give to Muslims – surplus to Medina – fiscal autonomy proves a source of conflict later on.
• UTHMAN AND THE BEGINNINGS OF INTERNAL STRIFE 644 – 656
• Umar assassinated in 644 – further expanded into Egypt and Fertile Crescent and started incursion into Iran – development institutions like diwan, urban settlements and privileged class receiving highest Ata. Gave orders to amirs – little in the way of central government – caliph lied in pious simplicity – avoiding power and pomp of Byzantine emperor or Sassanian Kings.
• Uthman as next caliph and come in with programme: Muslim empire under Quraysh, , more centralisation and less clan-government, financial and political affairs in Medina – producing definitive copy of the Qur’an – shows his authority.  Brave attempt new admin system for the empire – opposition as perceived breach Umar policies and betrayal of principles of Islam – opposition crystallized around two issues: declining Islamic elite of early converts, whether surplus from provinces should go to Medina – combo led to disasters at end for regime.
• Saw needs of all umma to be satisfied need further expansion = expeditions to Nubia and North Africa – development Muslim naval power in Mediterranean under governors of Syria and Egypt.  Beat Byzatnines 655 Battle of Masts off Lycian coast – east Uthman’s reign saw effective conquest of Iranian plateau, begun by Umar in 642 when Iranians tried to mount counter-attack on Arabs to regain Iraq – met and defeated battle of Nihavand in Zagros mountains.  Destruction large parts of Iranian army and laid much of Western Iran open to Iranian raids; next two years troops from Kufa took Isfahan, Hamdhan, azin and Rayy and even as far as Ardabil in Azerbaijan – permanent settlement not undertaken – late comers tried to increase status – Separate expeditions from Basra under leadership of Abu Musa – from 645 forces engaged long struggle to take Fars – heartland Sassanina monarchy – area defended by many castles and fortified towns took five years to subdue – nowhere else did Arabs encounter such sustained popular resistance.
• 650 – raids from Kufia unsuccessful but raids from Basra more successful chase Sassanian king Yazdigridd II – took Kurusan and most princes agree to pay tribute – no more onerous that previous rule.
• Death Uthman Sassanian Iran virtually all taken – not secure rebellions in the West and eastern Iran leave led aristocracy and culture as Arabs went mainly for plains and settlement – profound effects later on.
• Uthman killed 650 after 6 good years and 6 bad years – why killed? Three regions discontent – surpluses and status of early comer in Kufa.  Disputes as newcomers resent position of status of early / lesser tribe status.  Similar situation Egyptians – caliph treats harshly and they return to Medina and siege house.  Few in Medina resentful of policies prepared to help caliph 0 killed because determined to assert the control of the Quraysh elite over Islamic state – saw need for control and saw Umayyad clan had experience and ability to undertake it – failed to make allowances for others – different but equally strong claims to fruits of conquests.

Other Notes in this Category

1. army – its size and effectiveness for the defense of the eastern borders
2. Birth of the Islamic State
3. Byzantine authority and the nomads – divergent views
4. Byzantine reliance on arab military resistance
5. Byzantium and the early islamic conquests
6. Caliphate of ali – 656 – 661
7. Conquest and division in the time of the rashidun caliphs
8. Difficulty in devising defence for Syria
9. Elements of Failure and Endurance
10. End of the Ancient Economy
11. Foundation of the marwand caliphate and the achievemnet of ‘abd al-malik
12. Islamic conquests
13. Limitations defense-in-depth strategy
14. Military leadership of heraclius
15. relevance of recent war with persia
16. Richard n. frye – arab conquests in iran
17. State of strategy and warfare
18. The matric of the muslim world:
19. The umayyad caliphate
20. Umar and the early islamic conquests – 634 – 644
21. Whittow – making of byzantium

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