Eastern Provinces - War and peace with Persia
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·        Aims all well and good but policies and aims change frequently.

·        Justinian’s wars illustrate lack of necessary resources to to pursue major campaigns in eastern frontier area, or resist Persian raids, while campaigning elsewhere + enormous cost of securing peace.

·        Problems since Sasanians into power 3^rd century – inglorious camps. Mesopotamian frontiers ended 531 death Cavadh – then Chosroes I – major treaty 533 – 11,000 lb gold to SE – no change.  Not likely Chosroes I wait and see – match for J, esp as news, 540 – lack of Roman defence system obvious as Edessa, Apamean n M and Stria – large payments of silver.

·        Justinian ordered that no payments should be made to the Persians for th safety of Eastern cities.  Upon news Chosroes besieged and sacked Antioch, 2^nd city of Empire,

·        Plague – literary sources exaggerate but obviously huge effect – immediate effect on tax revenues and military manpower – seen subsequent legislation to recover taxes from estates of those who had died – great difficulties sustaining war on two fronts.

·        Also mismanagement and confusion – AD 543 Armenia – small force of Persians kill Marses and inflict heavy defeat at Anglon nr Davin – 545 5 yr treaty concluded at 2,0000 lbb of gold.  Substantial skirmishes between Arab allies of B and P – Ghassanids and Lakhmids  549 Byzantine forces destroy Persian army at Lazica.  551 another rive year peace treaty with 2,600lb of gold – problems in Lazica continued  - but in 561 50 yr peace at Dara – Byzantine Master of Offices and Peter the Patrician – Persians renounce claims to Lazica but get 30,000 gold nomismata – ten years in advance.  Existing frontiers confirmed and trade limited to cities with custom facilities.

·        Among clauses one relating to Arab tribe allies becoming important factor in maintaining security of east and another guaranteeing status of Nestorian Christians in East.

·        Western reconquest suffer as Persian wars drain manpower, resources and gold

·        Justinian underestimates: but plague unforeseen and relative quiet on Eastern front illusory.  Vandal Africa too easy comp. To Italy.  Also Africa and Italy need new administrative units – adds to difficulty of wars. Uncertain commander – jealous delegates badly.

·        Timing of religious war not great in 540s – even in military campaign provinces this caused problems coincided with various other political problems.

·        Not surprising then that military campaigns ran into difficulties – did well to do it for so long – maybe explained by prosperous state of affairs when Justinian inherits Empire – but decline in defence and population + urban change become apparent at end of reign – suggest military reconquest and imperial reconstruction had some effect.

Other Notes in this Category

1. Eastern Frontier
2. Eastern Mediterranean - Settlement and Change
3. Eastern Provinces - War and peace with Persia
4. Fortifications and Other Buildings
5. Justinian and Reconquest

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