Contemporary and Future
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Contemporary and Future Situation

·        Debate future archaeologists Muslim world over changes in ownership patterns – suggests archaeology and history working together.

Summary and Conclusions

·        Direct religious component negligible beyond public / private space.

THE DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENT

·        Rapoport “physical embodiment of an ideal environment” – medium and outcome of social practices, home of the family unit – “the foremost and fundamental institution of human society” – primary sphere in Islamic social order.

·        Environment in which social codes and gender roles are defined, taught and transferred.

·        Archaeologically symbolic – metaphor for society.

·        Domestic environment far from neutral

·        Study of the vernacular usually neglected in favour of non-representative palatial architecture.

An Ideal Islamic Domestic Environment

·        Qur’an strict rules governing privacy and sanctity of house – protection and seclusion of women fundamental here – DE split into private environs for family, inc women’s quarters with only male relatives, and semi public space for male communal sphere.

·        Deliberate inward orientation of space – exterior windows rare to avoid looking inward, outside usually austere, angled entranceways denying passer by access.  Not unique or initiated by Islam.

·        Not ignore local cultural and environmental factors – lattice windows avoid environmental – glare sun, also religious purpose stopping view of women.

·        Floor plans themselves not conclusive – can’t tell differing domains

Archaeological Recognition

·        Permanent Structures in stone and brick – horizontal axis – foundations tell us room size and courtyard structures. Palaces –courtyards within palace – separate private units. – Alhambra guards houses remains on h axis show typical Islamic pattern.

·        Vertical Axis – Yemeni tower houses – strategically placed grills to avoid chance encounters – most private at the top etc.

Impermanent and Ephemeral Structures

·        Tents – even seemingly temporary or ephemeral structures have division between public and private – is idea greater than reality, can archaeology see changes in tents etc.

·        Need to examine artefacts – personal possessions, inscriptions, furnishings, dietary remains – study context as well.

Archaeology, Domestic Space and Social Use

·        Society and the Family – Orientation – little use, much inconsistency.

·        House Form – conversion to Islam suggestion that houses become more rectangular as opposed to round – why? Speculate: easier to separate into public and private – modernisation tendencies.

·        Acretive nature of the Muslim House – house grows as extended family does – Muslim tradition to have wife, kids and sons in household.

·        Collectivistic Societies – shared value system, emphasis on containing women, gender separation inside, separate men’s accommodation – contrast to individualistic societies where mobility is high, kinship weakened and competing value systems and fashions develop. Western houses replacing collectivistic courtyard houses in Iraq  - problematic in terms of air con, filled courtyards filed to provide privacy.

·        Ziadeh’s study of Tiu’inik changing social and political conditions can be plotted through changes in architecture and residential patterns – collective houses abandoned and more concrete, separate multi room buildings.  Away from self sufficient family economic unit, free labour to waged labour and nuclear family. 

Public and Private Faces

·        Expression of wealth and status in public rooms with best ornaments etc – emulation amongst lower social orders

Status, society, culture and purdah

·        Qur’an states restriction of female social interaction. Protection of purity of women – not substances but “power to defile the pure blood of the group” – control mechanisms.

·        Status – women are seen if they work, but if they do not work then someone else is doing the work and thus increased status.

·        Cultural – Muslims in UK have to adapt to Victorian houses –separation back rooms into women’s quarters, erection of curtains etc.

Space, gender and its archaeological recognition

·        Berber House – interpret divisions, objects, context relations between the two heavily engenderising archaeology.

Thresholds, Boundaries and Entrances

·        3 types: Physical, invisible and calligraphic or decorative. – creating, defining and protecting spatial divides.  Usually acts as a marker between domestic, private, public, natural and even supernatural worlds.

Summary and Conclusions

·        Existence demarcated public / private, male / female manifest through almost entire Muslim spectrum. Trad. Domestic environment fusion of cultural, environmental, social and religious factors + pre Islamic debt.

·        Plans alone not enough for identification – various categories from material world that need to be found – existence structured environment that can be adapted to a Muslim ethos is undeniable.

·        Religion not just a set of pigeonholed beliefs – seen as an agency which can act upon the whole of life and can influence many aspects of material culture

DEATH AND BURIAL

·        Burial itself and funerary monument can have meaning and significance which if unlocked can provide a wealth of information on the development and diversity of Islam and the Muslim world.

·        Islamic funerary archaeology is residue of individuals and communities - desire for commemoration, assuage grief, replicate social position and hierarchies in death as in life, attain piety, establish identity – study death learn lot about life.

·        Usual elements are: property, social status and prestige. – also info on non orthodox ritual and individuals themselves

Muslim Burial: Ideals and Origins

·        Originally little mentioned about funerary practices – indeed frowned upon.  Why increase in prestige? Growth of Islamic world beyond Arabian peninsula – admixture of other cultures, pre-Islamic survivals, desire to express power and authority (secular and sacred).

Internal Cemetery Patterning

·        Notion of sacred geography – proximity to a holy person will help protect grave

·        Suicide graves given differing treatment, as frowned upon by the prophet.

·        Muslim burial pattern Cambridge cemetery significantly different to Christian one.

Intra Cemetery Patterning

·        Timbuktu life in death – from positioning of cemeteries and who in them – ethnic identity, residential patterns might be reconstructed from funerary data.

Tombs for the living and the Dead

·        Display – means of display to living and creation of a lasting legacy

·        Status – huge constructions in India built by ultimate inhabitant – sign of wealth and prestige.

·        If taken on by a Muslim holy man – legitimisation “I am pious” took place.  Different identities through same building – in life status and wealth and in death piety.

·        Love – Taj Mahal near Agra – simply a love monument

·        Funerary evidence imbued with “emotional legacy” – unapproachable as that might be

·        Muslim Identity – materials and structures can serve to commemorate the dead but also convey information to the living – he was a good Muslim – red brick monument.

·        Inversions of Reality – Wahhabi Set – true Islam – opposed to the cult of Saints – simplistic commemoration. King buried same as peasant – lack of substantial funerary monument not necessarily indicative of lack of socials status or wealth.

·        Multiple Meanings – Eastern Africa Waungwana status – funerary architecture legitimise social and political claims (displays of lineage etc).  Claims of the living that are pursued as opposed to the claims of the dead – I AM WAUNGWANA. Swahili Pillar Tombs  - blend functions blend Indians, Muslims, Africans

·        Tombs as a focus – Sacred markers forming focus for pilgrimage, physical and spiritual centres of community

·        Saints and Sufis – soul of the saint lingers around the tomb – aid people who seek intervention of the saint.  Whole array of buildings and amenities spring up around these tombs.

·        Qubbas – mark either actual burial place – or act as a memorial shrine – can function as a focus of community attention.

·        Martyrs – people transported to be buried near these martyrs.

·        Political Role of Tombs – politico-religious strife from funerary monuments difficult to reconstruct archaeologically – historical data etc – active utilization and manipulation of funerary architecture and funerary remains in the struggle for religious and political loyalties and power.  Soviet dislike Tombs – Turks banning Dervish tomb proems.

Funerary Epigraphy: the Language of Death

·        Funeral Inscriptions used to signal gender, social status, occupation, religious piety and for claiming origins and ethnicity, ownership of someone or somewhere

·        Us and You – Hui on Southern Chinese coast use Arabic funeral inscriptions to separate bolster identity against Chinese – virtually culturally indistinct.  Under Communists important to historical cultural traits to establish ethnic identity bring benefits of economic assistance.

Indigenzing Islam

·        As opposed to Chine, Indonesia Muslim identity could be more openly proclaimed ad indigenized without fears and pressures.

Status and Religious Affiliation

·        Ottoman Turkey – elaborate work used to denote secular status and religious affiliation

·        Heat-Death association water – verdure life – in Islamic heritage and reflected in graves – emphasis on water etc.  Colour importance all come through in monuments and shrouds

Other Notes in this Category

1. Amenity Versus Enterprise
2. Archeaology of Islam
3. Arguments in Stone
4. Authourity and Cult
5. Conclusions
6. Contemporary and Future
7. Early Islamic and European Change
8. Introduction
9. Islamic Cities
10. Muslim Settlements

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